This is an excerpt from Critical Terrorism Studies: A Dictionary by Lee Jarvis and Alice Martini. Available in all good book stores, and via free download from E-International Relations.
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Conspiracy theory
A conspiracy theory is a typically succinct, and seemingly coherent, set of beliefs that reduce social or political dynamics to the furtive, nefarious plots of powerful organisations and their members. Such theories lack substantial evidence and rely on speculation, a mistrust of official explanations, and assumed hidden agendas. Conspiracy theories often draw on racist arguments, tropes, and claims – as seen in antisemitic narratives about the power and interests of Jewish communities, or in fears surrounding ‘white genocide’ and the ‘great replacement’ theory, which suggest that white populations are being deliberately diminished in Western countries. Conspiracy theories can cover a wide range of topics, from political events and assassinations to health crises and technological advances, and can have significant impact on public opinion and behaviour. While some conspiracy theories may contain or manipulate elements of truth, they generally rely on unverified or entirely fabricated claims and the dismissal or ridiculing of contradictory evidence.
Conspiracy theories often thrive in environments where there is widespread mistrust of political or other authorities. Once marginal phenomena, conspiracy theories have gained prominence in recent years within a wider trajectory of political polarisation. Such theories have increased in importance as challenges to democratic environments, and have resulted in violent outbursts, for instance when groups in Western states acted violently against Covid–19 regulations in 2020. Conspiracy theories can provide important context and conditions in which terrorist and extremist organisations and ideas may thrive (Angove 2024). They can help produce or construct ‘others’ as legitimate targets for violence, and incentivise individuals or groups to act violently because of the perceived inadequacies of the state and its institutions. This can be particularly important where such ideas are given currency by mainstream political elites elected on populist platforms associated with the far-right, for example. Although often associated with men, conspiracies such as QAnon had especial appeal to women seeking to ‘save children’ from the sexual predations of those accused of being part of the US ‘deep state’ (Bloom and Moskaleno 2022).
QAnon
QAnon is a prominent US-based, far-right conspiratorial movement that emerged in 2017. The conspiracy focuses on the perceived takeover of the so-called ‘deep state’ by a clandestine group of powerful and high-profile paedophiles with satanic and cannibalistic leanings (Bloom and Moskalenko 2022). In this construction – equally baseless and bizarre – hope is invested in Donald Trump and his supporters to confront this threat which is said to include prominent political and public figures such as Barack Obama and Lady Gaga. The conspiracy emerged out of posts by the anonymous ‘Q’ – a poster claiming insider knowledge – on the online bulletin board 4chan, and later on other sites including 8chan (now 8kun). The letter ‘Q’ became part of the movement’s symbolic rhetoric along with slogans such as ‘WWG1WGA’, meaning ‘where we go one, we go all’ (Ebner et al 2022b, 62). QAnon’s followers have engaged in various activities, including spreading misinformation, participating in protests, and committing violent acts. QAnon supporters were present in the 6 January 2021 attack on the US Capitol Building that followed Trump’s defeat in the US presidential election.
Research on QAnon has explored the threat that it poses to national security in the US and beyond (Ebner et al 2022b), as well as the rhetorical and discursive construction of its conspiracy theory (e.g. Marwick and Partin 2024). Work such as this helps situate QAnon within wider social contexts relating to digital technologies and platforms, as well as political contexts such as the contemporary importance of populism, conspiracy theories, and right-wing criticism of the state. Other work focuses on QAnon’s appeal and attractiveness (e.g. Fitzgerald 2022), including to particular demographics such as women – thus shining light on the importance of gender politics to this particular conspiracy (e.g. Bloom and Moskalenko 2021, 2022).
Further Reading
Aistrope, Tim. 2016. “The Muslim Paranoia Narrative in Counter- Radicalisation Policy”. Critical Studies on Terrorism 9 (2): 182–204.
Bleakley, Paul. 2023. “Panic, Pizza and Mainstreaming the Alt-Right: A Social Media Analysis of Pizzagate and the Rise of the QAnon Conspiracy”. Current Sociology 71 (3): 509–525.
Butter, Michael, and Peter Knight, eds. 2021. Routledge Handbook of Conspiracy Theories. Routledge Handbooks. London: Routledge.
Fitzgerald, James. 2022. “Conspiracy, Anxiety, Ontology: Theorising QAnon”.First Monday 27 (5).
Lee Jarvis is a Professor of Security and Society at Adelaide University, and holds honorary professorships at the Loughborough University and the University of East Anglia. He is author or editor of 17 books and over 60 articles on the politics of terrorism and security. He is co-editor of Critical Studies on Terrorism, and his research has been funded by the ESRC, the AHRC, the Australian Research Council and NATO among others.
Alice Martini is a Lecturer of International Relations at the Complutense University of Madrid, Spain, and holds an honorary professorship at the Queen Mary, University of London. She is the author of The UN and Counter- Terrorism: Global Hegemonies, Power, and Identities (Routledge 2021), and co-editor of Encountering Extremism: Theoretical Issues and Local Challenges (Manchester University Press 2020) and Contemporary Reflections on Critical Terrorism Studies (Routledge 2023). Her work has been published in journals including Security Dialogue and Third World Quarterly.